GEOGRAPHY
- Earth
- Interior of Earth
- Composition of Earth
- Mantle
- Core
- Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
- Magnetic field of Earth
- Magnetic Dip
- Geomagnetic Equator & Equatorial Electrojet
- Earth’s Magnetosphere
- Earthquakes
- How The Earthquakes Occur?
- Determination of Epicentre
- Earthquake Magnitude and Earthquake Intensity
- Richter Magnitude Scale
- Moment magnitude scale
- Earthquake Belts
- Earthquakes in India
- Seismic Zoning of India (Zone 1 to Zone 5)
- Layers of Atmosphere
- Troposphere
- Tropopause
- Stratosphere
- How temperature varies with height in Atmosphere?
- Temperature Inversion
- Ozone Layer
- Mesosphere
- Solar radiation and Insolation
- Exosphere
- Albedo
- Effects of the Atmosphere on Solar Radiation
- Methods of Heat Transfer
- What is Latent Heat?
- Earth Heat Budget
- Distribution of Temperature
- Temperature Zones of Earth
- Isotherms
- Daily variation of Temperature
- Atmospheric Pressure & Global Winds
- Pressure belts of the Earth
- Coriolis Force
- Intertropical Convergence Zone and Doldrums
- Horse Latitude
- Trade Winds
- Westerlies
- Polar winds
- Jet Stream
- Local Wind
- Monsoon
- Composition of Atmosphere
- Rain
- Types of Rain
- Distribution of Rainfall in India and world
- What is Cloud?
- Air Mass & Fronts
- Frontogenesis and Frontolysis
- Types of Fronts
- Cyclone
- Formation and Effects of Tropical Cyclone
- Formation and Effects of Extra Tropical Cyclone
- How the cyclones are named?
- Anticyclones
- Biosphere
- Ecosystem, types, and services provided by the ecosystem
- Biome and Ecozones
- Types of Biome
- Savannah Biome
- Mediterranean Biome
- Desert Biome
- Soil
- Types of Soil in India
- Soil Acidity and Basicity
- Layers of soil
- Soil Taxonomy
- Rocks & Minerals
- Rock Types
- Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rocks
- Felsic Rocks and Mafic Rocks
- Sedimentary Rocks
- Metamorphic Rocks
- Volcanoes & Volcanism
- What is Magma?
- Weathering
- Relief Features of Earth Surface
- First, Second and Third Order of Relief
- Relief Features of the Oceans
- Continental Drift
- Evidence of Continental Drift: Wegener’s Continental Drift Hypothesis
- Plate Tectonics
- Paleomagnetism
- Seafloor Spreading
- Movement of Plates
- Faulting Versus Folding
- Major and Minor Plates
- Plate Boundaries
- Mountain Formation: Orogeny
- Types of the Mountains
- Landform
- Types of Landform: Erosional and Depositional
- Landforms made by River Erosion
- Landforms made by River Deposition
- Landforms made by River Transportations
- Ocean Sediment
- Manganese Nodules
- Ocean as the Source of Energy
- Ocean Temperature
- Horizontal and Vertical Variation of ocean water temperature
- Ocean Current
- Coriolis Effect and Coriolis Force
- Types of Oceanic Currents
- Tides
- Geology of India
- Archean formations
- Dharwar System
- Cuddapah System
- Vindhyan System
- Gondwana System
- Deccan Trap
- Tertiary System
- Gondwana System in India
- Physiographic Features of India
- The Himalayan Mountains
- Himalayan Orogeny
- Classification of the Himalaya System
- Geographical Regions of Himalaya
- Geographical terms associated with the northern plains of India
- Important Mountain passes in Himalayas
- The Northern Slopes and Southern Slopes of Himalayas
- Northern Plane of India
- Division of the Northern Plane of India
- North-South division of the Northern Plane of India
- Thar Desert
- Central Highlands
- Mountains in the central highlands of India
- Chhotanagpur Plateau
- Karbi-Meghalaya Plateau
- Deccan Plateau
- Western Ghats
- Katuriragan and Madhav Gadgil committee on western Ghat
- Eastern Ghat
- The Himalayan Mountains
- Drainage System of India
- Indus River System
- Tributaries of Indus River
- The Ganga River System
- Tributaries of River Ganga
- Brahmaputra River System
- Tributaries of Brahmaputra River
- Mahanadi River system
- Krishna River
- Cauvery River
- Godavari River
- Narmada River
- Mahi River
- Tapti River
- Ghaggar-Hakra River
- Indus River System
- Coastal Region of India
- West Coast of India
- Eastern Coast of India
- Gulf and Straits in India
- Islands of India
- 10 Degree Channel
- Indira Point
- Saddle Peak
- Barren Island
- Lakshadweep Island
- Climate of India
- Factors influencing the Indian climate
- Monsoon and Seasons in India
- Monsoon Mechanism
- Winter Monsoon
- Mango Shower
- Distribution of Rainfall in India
- EL NINO
- La Nina
- Soils of India
- Indian Classification of Soils
- Soil Degradation & Soil Erosion
- Determinism and Possibilism
- Theory of Demographic Transition
- Age Sex Pyramid
- Types of activities in Economy
- Mixed Farming
Chemistry
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- Introduction to Chemistry
- What is Chemistry?
- Importance and Applications of Chemistry
- Scientific Method and Experimental Techniques
- States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
- Atomic Structure and Periodic Table
- Atomic Structure: Protons, Neutrons, Electrons
- Periodic Table and Periodicity
- Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
- Chemical Reactions
- Balancing Chemical Equations
- Types of Chemical Reactions
- Acids, Bases, and Salts
- Properties of Acids and Bases
- pH Scale and Indicators
- Acid-Base Reactions and Neutralization
- Common Acids, Bases, and Salts
- Gases and Kinetic Molecular Theory
- Properties of Gases
- Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, Avogadro’s Law
- Ideal Gas Law
- Thermodynamics and Energy
- Laws of Thermodynamics
- Heat, Work, and Energy Transfer
- Enthalpy, Entropy, and Gibbs Free Energy
- Chemical Equilibrium
- Organic Chemistry
- Functional Groups and Organic Reactions
- Hydrocarbons and Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes
- Environmental Chemistry
- Pollution and Environmental Impact
- Atmospheric Chemistry: Ozone Depletion, Greenhouse Effect, Climate Change
- Sustainable Chemistry and Green Technologies
- Introduction to Chemistry
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Biology
- Cell Division and Cellular Processes
- Biological Classification
- Food and Nutrition
- Vitamins
- Human Eye
- Human Body
- Digestive System
- Reproduction
- Transportation and Excretion in Plants
- Blood
- Human Brain
- Heredity and Evolution
- Endocrine System
- Urinary System
- Harmones
- Skeletal System
- Nervous System
- Circulatory System
- Respiratory System
- Blood Group
- Biomolecules
Physics
- Overview of Different Branches of Physics
- Motion and Forces
- Describing Motion: Distance, Displacement, Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration
- Newton’s Laws of Motion
- Forces and Their Types
- Applications of Forces in Daily Life
- Understanding Energy and Its Forms
- Energy and Its Forms
- Work and its Relation to Energy
- Conservation of Energy
- Power and Its Measurement
- States of Matter
- States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
- Density, Pressure, and Buoyancy
- Thermal Properties and Temperature
- Heat Transfer Mechanisms: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
- Properties of Waves
- Amplitude, Frequency, and Wavelength
- Types of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
- Sound Waves and Their Characteristics
- Reflection, Refraction, and Interference of Waves
- Light and Optics
- Nature of Light and Its Behavior
- Reflection and Refraction of Light
- Mirrors and Lenses
- Optical Phenomena (Diffraction, Interference, Polarization)
- Electric Charges and Fields
- Introduction to Electric Charges
- Electric Fields
- Introduction to Electric Circuits
- Electric Circuit Components
- Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
- Electromagnetic Waves and Their Applications
- Modern Physics
- Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
- Atomic Structure and the Bohr Model
- Particle Physics and the Standard Model
- Nuclear Energy and Radioactivity
Few Pages from the UPSC General Studies Manual 2024 for Prelims & Mains Exam:
Electromagnetic Waves and Their Applications
Electromagnetic waves are a form of energy propagation that does not require a medium for transmission. They are crucial in various fields and have numerous practical applications. In this section, we will explore the fundamentals of electromagnetic waves:
- Electromagnetic Spectrum:
- The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses a wide range of electromagnetic waves, ordered by their wavelengths or frequencies.
- It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
- Each type of wave in the electromagnetic spectrum has specific properties and interactions with matter.
- Properties of Electromagnetic Waves:
- Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, meaning that the oscillations of electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
- They exhibit characteristics such as wavelength (λ), frequency (f), amplitude, and velocity (c).
- The wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional: c = fλ, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum (approximately 3.0 × 10^8 meters per second).
- Behavior of Electromagnetic Waves:
- Electromagnetic waves can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, and absorbed by various materials and objects.
- The behavior of electromagnetic waves is influenced by factors such as the nature of the material, the wavelength of the wave, and the angle of incidence.
Applications of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves have numerous practical applications in various fields. Let’s explore some of the key applications:
- Radio and Television Broadcasting:
- Radio waves are used for transmitting signals in radio and television broadcasting.
- Antennas receive and transmit radio waves, allowing the transmission of information over long distances.
- Wireless Communication:
- Electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves, are used in wireless communication systems, including mobile phones, Wi-Fi, and satellite communication.
- These waves enable the transmission of information through the air without the need for physical wires.
- Medical Imaging:
- Electromagnetic waves, including X-rays and gamma rays, are used in medical imaging techniques such as X-ray imaging, computed tomography (CT) scans, and nuclear medicine.
- These waves can penetrate through the body and provide detailed images for diagnostic purposes.
- Remote Sensing:
- Electromagnetic waves, particularly in the infrared and microwave regions, are used in remote sensing applications, such as weather forecasting, satellite imagery, and environmental monitoring.
- These waves allow the collection of data from a distance, providing valuable information about Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
- Optics and Lasers:
- Visible light, which is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, is used in optics and laser technology.
- Optics involves the manipulation and control of light for applications such as lenses, mirrors, and optical fibers.
- Lasers utilize coherent and focused light beams for diverse applications, including laser surgery, communication, cutting, and precision measurements.
- Energy Generation:
- Solar energy relies on the capture and conversion of sunlight, which is composed of electromagnetic waves, into usable electrical energy.
- Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity through the photoelectric effect.
Understanding electromagnetic waves and their applications is essential in various fields and technologies:
- Communication and Information Technology: Wireless communication systems, satellite communication, and data transmission rely on electromagnetic waves.
- Medicine and Healthcare: Medical imaging techniques, radiation therapy, and non-invasive diagnostics utilize electromagnetic waves.
- Remote Sensing and Earth Observation: Electromagnetic waves facilitate the monitoring of weather patterns, environmental changes, and natural resources.
- Optics and Photonics: Optics and lasers play a vital role in diverse fields, including telecommunications, manufacturing, and scientific research.
- Renewable Energy: Solar energy conversion relies on capturing and harnessing electromagnetic waves from the sun.
By studying electromagnetic waves and their applications, scientists, engineers, and researchers can develop technologies, improve communication systems, advance medical diagnostics, enhance remote sensing capabilities, and drive innovations in various domains.
Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks are two primary categories of igneous rocks, and they differ in terms of their formation processes, textures, and characteristics. Here’s an explanation of each type:
Intrusive Igneous Rocks:
- Formation: Intrusive igneous rocks, also known as plutonic rocks, form when molten magma solidifies beneath the Earth’s surface. This process occurs at depth within the Earth’s crust, where magma cools slowly over an extended period of time. The slow cooling allows mineral crystals to grow relatively large.
- Texture: Intrusive rocks typically have a coarse-grained texture, characterized by the presence of visible mineral crystals that are easily seen without the aid of a microscope. The slow cooling of magma beneath the surface allows crystals to grow to a significant size.
- Examples: Common examples of intrusive igneous rocks include granite, diorite, and gabbro. Granite, with its distinctive mix of minerals and coarse texture, is widely recognized as an intrusive rock.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks:
- Formation: Extrusive igneous rocks, also known as volcanic rocks, form when molten lava erupts at the Earth’s surface and cools rapidly due to exposure to the relatively cooler atmospheric temperatures or water bodies like oceans or lakes. This rapid cooling prevents mineral crystals from growing very large.
- Texture: Extrusive rocks typically have a fine-grained to glassy texture. Fine-grained rocks contain small mineral crystals that are not easily visible to the naked eye. Glassy rocks, like obsidian, cool so rapidly that they lack any discernible crystal structure and appear smooth and glass-like.
- Examples: Common examples of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt, andesite, and pumice. Basalt is a well-known extrusive rock often found in volcanic landscapes.
Key Differences:
- Cooling Rate: The most significant difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks is the rate of cooling. Intrusive rocks cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface, allowing for the growth of larger mineral crystals. In contrast, extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface, resulting in fine-grained or glassy textures.
- Visibility of Crystals: Intrusive rocks have visible mineral crystals, while extrusive rocks have smaller, less visible crystals or may appear glassy.
- Location: Intrusive rocks are found beneath the Earth’s surface, typically exposed through erosion or uplift. Extrusive rocks are found on the Earth’s surface, often associated with volcanic activity.
In summary, intrusive igneous rocks form from slow-cooling magma beneath the Earth’s surface and have coarse-grained textures, while extrusive igneous rocks form from rapidly cooling lava at the surface and have fine-grained to glassy textures. These rocks provide valuable insights into the geological history and processes of the Earth.
The above notes are part of UPSC General Studies Manual 2024 for Prelims & Mains Exam e-Book.
