In measurement and instrumentation, instruments are broadly classified into absolute instruments and secondary instruments based on how they measure and display the value of a physical quantity. Absolute Instruments Definition An absolute instrument is one that measures the value of a quantity in terms of physical constants and instrument dimensions, without requiring prior calibration. It …
A transducer is a fundamental component in measurement and instrumentation systems. It is used to convert a physical quantity (non-electrical) into an electrical signal, which can be easily measured, processed, and recorded. Transducers act as a bridge between the physical world and electronic systems. Basic Measurement System A typical measurement system consists of: Measurand (physical …
The load curve is a graphical representation showing the variation of load with time in a power system. Definition A load curve is a plot of load (kW or MW) versus time (hours, days, or months). Types of Load Curves Daily Load Curve Variation over 24 hours Shows peak and off-peak demand Weekly Load Curve …
The output frequency and voltage of an alternator are key parameters that determine the quality of electrical power. Output Frequency Definition Frequency is the number of cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz). Frequency Equation \[ f = \frac{P N}{120} \] \(f\): Frequency (Hz) \(P\): Number of poles \(N\): Speed (rpm) Key Points Depends on …
The insulation resistance of a cable represents the ability of the insulating material to resist leakage current. For long cables, insulation resistance decreases, making it an important parameter in power system analysis. Basic Concept Conductor Insulating material Protective sheath The insulation prevents leakage of current from the conductor to earth or sheath. Definition \[ R …
Sag is the vertical distance between the lowest point of a conductor and the straight line joining the supports. Shape of Conductor Actual shape: Catenary Approximation: Parabola Sag Equation \[ S = \frac{wL^2}{8T} \] \(S\): Sag \(w\): Weight per unit length \(L\): Span length \(T\): Tension Unequal Supports Sag becomes unequal Lowest point shifts toward …
The Plant Capacity Factor measures how effectively a power plant utilizes its installed capacity over a given period. Definition \[ \text{Capacity Factor} = \frac{\text{Actual Energy Generated}}{\text{Plant Rated Capacity} \times \text{Time}} \] Actual Energy Generated: Total energy produced Plant Rated Capacity: Maximum output Time: Total operating period Alternate Form \[ \text{Capacity Factor} = \frac{\text{Average Load}}{\text{Plant Capacity}} …
The load factor indicates how efficiently the installed capacity of a power plant is utilized over a given period. Definition \[ \text{Load Factor} = \frac{\text{Average Load}}{\text{Maximum Demand}} \] \[ \text{Load Factor} = \frac{\text{Energy Generated}}{\text{Maximum Demand} \times \text{Time}} \] Terms Maximum Demand Highest load recorded during a period. Average Load \[ \text{Average Load} = \frac{\text{Total Energy}}{\text{Time}} …
Voltage series feedback, also called series–shunt feedback, is a commonly used feedback topology where: Output voltage is sampled (shunt sampling) Feedback is applied in series with the input (series mixing) It is widely used in voltage amplifiers such as op-amp circuits. Basic Concept The feedback signal is subtracted from the input: $$ V_{in} = V_s …
A feedback amplifier is an amplifier in which a portion of the output signal is fed back to the input. This feedback can either enhance or oppose the input signal, thereby affecting the overall performance of the amplifier. Feedback amplifiers are widely used in electronics, communication systems, and control systems to improve gain stability, bandwidth, …