The 19th century in India was a period of deep transformation under British rule. The economic exploitation of India by the British, the spread of Western education, and the growth of reform movements brought major changes in society, culture, and economy. While new ideas of modernity emerged, traditional structures also faced challenges.
Table of Contents
Economic Conditions
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Colonial Economy: India became an exporter of raw materials (cotton, indigo, jute, opium) and an importer of British manufactured goods.
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Decline of Handicrafts: Indian textile industry and other crafts collapsed due to competition from machine-made British goods.
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Land Revenue Systems:
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Permanent Settlement (1793) in Bengal benefited zamindars but burdened peasants.
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Ryotwari System in Madras and Bombay placed direct taxes on cultivators.
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Mahalwari System in North-West Provinces taxed village communities.
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Famines and Poverty: Heavy taxation and agricultural decline led to frequent famines (e.g., 1876–78 famine).
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Rise of New Classes: Emergence of new landlords, moneylenders, and middle-class professionals due to British policies.
Social Conditions
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Rigid Caste System: Still prevalent, with untouchability and social inequalities.
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Status of Women: Women faced problems of child marriage, sati, purdah, and denial of education.
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Reforms: Abolition of sati (1829), Widow Remarriage Act (1856), campaigns against child marriage and for women’s education.
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Education: Spread of Western education and English language due to Macaulay’s Minute (1835). Educated Indians formed a new middle class.
Cultural Developments
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Literature: Growth of Indian literature in English and vernacular languages.
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Writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore, Bharatendu Harishchandra enriched Indian literature.
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Press and Journalism: Rise of Indian-owned newspapers like Amrita Bazar Patrika, Kesari, The Hindu, which spread political awareness.
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Religious and Social Reform Movements:
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Brahmo Samaj (Raja Ram Mohan Roy) – opposed idol worship and caste system.
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Arya Samaj (Dayananda Saraswati) – “Back to the Vedas”, opposed untouchability.
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Ramakrishna Mission (Swami Vivekananda) – service to humanity.
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Aligarh Movement (Sir Syed Ahmed Khan) – modern education for Muslims.
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Art and Architecture: Influence of European styles mixed with traditional Indian forms. New public buildings, colleges, and railways were constructed.
Impact of Western Education and Ideas
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Introduced concepts of liberty, equality, democracy, and nationalism.
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Emergence of a new educated middle class that questioned social evils and colonial exploitation.
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Growth of nationalist feelings which later contributed to the rise of the Indian National Congress.
Key Takeaway
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The 19th century witnessed economic exploitation and decline of traditional industries, causing poverty and famines.
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At the same time, Western education and reform movements brought new cultural and social changes.
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This period laid the foundation of modern India, nurturing both reformist zeal and the nationalist spirit that fueled the freedom struggle.