• Land: The physical space for farming. Geographers analyze land tenure systems, fragmentation of holdings, land capability (soil type, topography, drainage), and land use changes (e.g., urbanization encroaching on prime agricultural land).
• Water: Essential for plant growth. This includes rainfall (spatial and temporal variability, monsoon dependency), and artificial irrigation. Water availability is a major determinant of cropping patterns and intensity.
• Climate: Temperature, sunlight, and atmospheric conditions directly influence crop suitability and growing seasons. Geographic variations in climate define agricultural zones.
• Soil: The foundation of fertility. Geographers consider soil composition, nutrient content, organic matter, and susceptibility to degradation (erosion, salinization, acidification).

• Human Labor: The physical work involved in farming. Geographical analysis considers population density, labor availability, migration patterns (rural-urban migration affecting labor supply), and the role of family labor versus hired labor.
• Animal Labor: Use of draught animals for plowing, threshing, etc., more common in traditional or subsistence farming systems.

• Machinery: Tractors, harvesters, pumps, etc. The level of mechanization varies greatly. Access to capital for purchasing machinery is a key geographical differentiator.
• Infrastructure: Roads for market access, storage facilities, processing units, and access to electricity. Geographical isolation and lack of infrastructure are major hindrances to input delivery and output marketing.
• Financial Capital (Credit): Access to loans for purchasing seeds, fertilizers, or machinery. Credit availability can be spatially uneven, trapping marginalized farmers in low-input, low-productivity cycles.

• Seeds: High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs) and genetically modified (GM) seeds. The diffusion of these technologies reveals patterns of adoption and regional disparities.
• Fertilizers: Chemical and organic fertilizers. Geographic studies examine the spatial intensity of fertilizer use and its environmental consequences.
• Pesticides & Herbicides: Chemicals to control pests and weeds. Geographers investigate their distribution, application patterns, and health impacts in different agricultural landscapes.
• Extension Services & Knowledge: The dissemination of agricultural best practices and training. Geographical access to these services is crucial for technology adoption.

• Yield per unit area: (e.g., quintals of wheat per hectare). This is the most common measure for crops and highlights the intensity of land use.
• Output per unit of labor: (e.g., kilograms of rice per farmer) – important in understanding labor efficiency and mechanization's role.
• Output per unit of capital: (e.g., revenue per dollar spent on machinery).
• Total Factor Productivity (TFP): A more comprehensive measure that considers all inputs (land, labor, capital, intermediate inputs) relative to total output, reflecting technological progress and efficiency gains.

• Biophysical Endowment: Naturally fertile soils, abundant rainfall, and suitable climate provide a geographical advantage, requiring fewer external inputs. Challenging environments necessitate higher, often more specialized, inputs.
• Accessibility and Infrastructure: Remote areas often suffer from higher costs of inputs and limited access to markets, depressing productivity. Well-connected regions tend to have higher productivity.

• Soil Degradation: Intensive use of chemical fertilizers, heavy machinery, and monoculture practices can deplete natural soil fertility and increase erosion, reducing long-term productivity.
• Water Pollution: Runoff of excess fertilizers and pesticides into water bodies leads to eutrophication, biodiversity loss, and contamination of drinking water sources.
• Water Scarcity: Over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation can lead to falling water tables, particularly in semi-arid regions, affecting future agricultural viability.
• Biodiversity Loss: Conversion of natural habitats and widespread pesticide use reduces biodiversity, impacting ecosystem services crucial for long-term productivity.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Production and use of synthetic fertilizers, livestock rearing, and deforestation contribute to climate change, which in turn impacts future agricultural productivity.

• Poverty and Access: Farmers in poverty often lack the financial resources to purchase quality inputs, perpetuating low productivity.
• Land Tenure and Farm Size: Small, fragmented landholdings can limit the adoption of modern machinery and efficient irrigation techniques.
• Market Access and Prices: Farmers' ability to sell produce at fair prices influences their incentive to invest in inputs. Proximity to markets is a spatially variable factor.
• Knowledge and Education: The adoption of improved farming techniques is linked to education levels and access to agricultural extension services.
• Government Policies: Subsidies for inputs, irrigation policies, price supports, and land-use regulations shape the input-productivity relationship across different regions.

The "Green Revolution" saw the rapid diffusion of HYV seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation in certain regions, dramatically increasing productivity. However, this diffusion was uneven, creating regional disparities in agricultural development due to varying access to these inputs and suitable biophysical conditions.