The history of human settlements in India goes back to prehistoric times, when no written records existed. Knowledge about this period comes from archaeological evidence such as stone tools, pottery, artifacts, and metal implements. Based on tools and lifestyle, Indian prehistory is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age), and Metal Age. Later, one of the most advanced ancient civilizations, the Harappan Civilization, emerged in the Indus Valley, marking the beginning of urban culture in India.
Table of Contents
The Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
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Existed before 10,000 B.C.
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People were hunter-gatherers, relying on hunting animals and collecting plants.
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Tools were made of quartzite and included large stone axes and pebbles.
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Famous sites: Soan Valley, Siwalik Hills, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh (Narmada Valley), Kurnool, Attirampakkam.
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People lived in rock shelters, caves, or huts made of leaves.
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Cave paintings at Bhimbetka depict animals and daily life.
The Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
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Roughly 10,000–6,000 B.C.
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Transitional phase between Old and New Stone Age.
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Tools were microliths (tiny stone blades).
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People began to use bow and arrow.
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Shift from large animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing.
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Practiced domestication of animals, primitive cultivation, and horticulture.
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Sites: Langhnaj (Gujarat), Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh), Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar.
The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
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Approximately 6,000–4,000 B.C.
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People began agriculture and domestication of animals.
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Tools were polished stone axes and pottery was made with wheels.
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Built mud-brick houses and lived in settled villages.
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Crops: wheat, barley, rice, millet.
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Domesticated sheep, goats, and cattle.
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Important sites: Kashmir Valley, Chirand (Bihar), Belan Valley (U.P.), Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Paiyampalli, Utnur.
The Metal Age
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Followed the Neolithic Age.
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People used copper and bronze, but stone tools also continued.
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Chalcolithic cultures grew in river valleys such as Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar, and Kaveri.
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Sites like Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu) show evidence of copper, bronze, pottery, terracotta figurines.
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Later came the Iron Age, associated with Megalithic Burials (large stone graves).
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Important Megalithic sites: Hallur, Maski (Karnataka), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu).
The Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley Civilization)
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First discovered at Harappa and Mohenjodaro (now in Pakistan).
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Later sites: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Surkotada, Dholavira (Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Rupar (Punjab).
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Civilization spanned c. 2300–1750 B.C.
Town Planning
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Cities built on a grid system with straight streets crossing at right angles.
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Each city had a citadel (upper town) and a lower town.
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Houses made of burnt bricks with private bathrooms and drainage.
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Underground drainage system was highly advanced.
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Important structures: Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, granaries at Harappa.
Economic Life
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Agriculture: wheat, barley, sesame, mustard, cotton.
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Domesticated animals: cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo.
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Crafts: pottery, bead-making, weaving, metallurgy (bronze, copper, gold, silver).
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Trade: internal trade within India, foreign trade with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Iran.
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Used bullock carts and boats for transport.
Social Life
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Wore cotton and wool garments.
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Men and women adorned with ornaments like bangles, necklaces, earrings, anklets.
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Played games such as dice and marbles.
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Children’s toys included terracotta carts and figurines.
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Weapons made of copper and bronze.
Art and Script
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Sculpture: terracotta figurines, stone statues, bronze dancing girl of Mohenjodaro.
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Pottery: decorated with designs of animals, birds, and geometrical patterns.
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Script: undeciphered, about 400–600 signs, written mostly right to left.
Religion
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Chief male deity: Proto-Shiva (Pasupati).
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Chief female deity: Mother Goddess.
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Worship of trees, animals, and symbols.
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Belief in amulets, ghosts, and evil forces.
Burial Practices
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Practiced complete burial and post-cremation burial.
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Evidence of wooden coffins, pot burials, and even pairs of skeletons.
Decline of Harappan Civilization
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Causes remain uncertain.
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Suggested reasons: floods, drying of rivers, soil exhaustion, earthquakes, invasions by Aryans.
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Rig Veda mentions destruction of forts, supporting invasion theory.
Key Takeaway
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Prehistoric India shows human progress from hunter-gatherers to settled farmers and metal-users.
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The Harappan Civilization was one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, known for planned cities, trade, crafts, and unique art forms.
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Though it declined, it laid the foundation for later cultural and social developments in India.