Section: A
1 a). On the outline map of India provided to you, mark the location of all of the following. Write in your QCA Booklet the significance of these locations, whether physical/commercial/economic/ecological/environmental/cultural, in not more than 30 words for each entry:
- Lunkaransar
- Raidak River
- Ekta Nagar
- Chandanwari
- Babina
- Tatipaka
- Along Airport
- Karaikal
- Panna
Ans:
1. Lunkaransar Major salt production center in Rajasthan’s Bikaner district. Largest salt lake in the region, contributing significantly to India’s salt industry and providing employment to local communities.
2. Raidak River Trans-boundary river flowing from Bhutan through West Bengal. Important for irrigation, flood management, and cross-border water sharing agreements between India and Bhutan.
3. Ekta Nagar Renamed from Kevadiya, houses the world’s tallest statue – Statue of Unity. Major tourist destination promoting cultural heritage and boosting local economy in Gujarat.
4. Chandanwari Base camp for Amarnath Yatra pilgrimage in Jammu & Kashmir. Significant religious site with glacial formations and trekking routes to the holy Amarnath Cave.
5. Babina Important railway junction in Uttar Pradesh with military cantonment. Strategic transportation hub connecting major cities and housing defense establishments and ordnance factories.
6. Tatipaka Located in Andhra Pradesh, known for natural gas reserves and petroleum exploration. Important for energy security and industrial development in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
7. Along Airport Advanced Landing Ground in Arunachal Pradesh near China border. Strategically important for defense operations, connectivity to remote areas, and border security management.
8. Karaikal Union Territory of Puducherry located in Tamil Nadu. Important port town with French colonial heritage, fishing industry, and agricultural trade center on Coromandel Coast.
9. Panna Madhya Pradesh district famous for Panna National Park and diamond mines. Significant for wildlife conservation (tiger reserve), mineral extraction, and eco-tourism development.
1 b). Discuss the basis of various explanations for the formation of Shiwalik
The Shiwalik Hills represent the youngest and outermost range of the Himalayas, and their formation has been explained through various geological theories and processes:
Tectonic Plate Theory
The most widely accepted explanation involves Indo-Australian Plate collision with the Eurasian Plate approximately 50 million years ago. The continuous northward movement created compressive forces that resulted in crustal deformation, folding, and uplift of sedimentary deposits, forming the Shiwalik range as the frontal thrust belt.
Sedimentary Deposition Theory
Shiwaliks formed from Tertiary sedimentary rocks deposited in the foredeep basin created by the Himalayan orogeny. Rivers flowing from the rising Himalayas deposited conglomerates, sandstones, and mudstones in this depression. Subsequent tectonic compression folded and uplifted these sedimentary layers.
Thrust Fault Mechanism
The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Himalayan Frontal Fault systems explain Shiwalik formation through thrust tectonics. Successive thrust sheets moved southward, carrying older rocks over younger sediments, creating the characteristic imbricated structure of the Shiwaliks.
Molasse Sedimentation
Shiwaliks represent molasse deposits – post-orogenic sediments derived from erosion of the rising Himalayas. These continental deposits accumulated in piedmont basins and were later deformed and uplifted during subsequent tectonic phases.
Neotectonic Activity
Recent tectonic movements continue shaping Shiwalik topography through ongoing compression, fault reactivation, and seismic activity, explaining their fragmented nature and continued evolution.
1 c). Conservation and breeding centres are important component of the Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2020—2025. Why?
Ans: Critical Population Decline India’s vulture populations experienced a catastrophic decline of over 97% since the 1990s, primarily due to diclofenac poisoning. Three species became critically endangered.
Ex-situ Conservation Strategy Breeding centres serve as genetic repositories and insurance populations against complete extinction. They maintain viable breeding stocks under controlled conditions.
Captive Breeding Programs These facilities implement scientific breeding protocols to maximize genetic diversity. Artificial incubation and veterinary care ensure higher survival rates.
Research and Monitoring Conservation centres provide platforms for behavioral studies and disease research. This scientific knowledge informs field conservation strategies.
Future Reintroduction Breeding centres prepare genetically diverse populations for eventual release programs once environmental threats are addressed.
1 d). North-Eastern States in India are geopolitically sensitive and strategically significant. Explain.
Ans: International Borders The North-East shares extensive boundaries with China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Bhutan. This creates complex security challenges and diplomatic sensitivities.
Strategic Connectivity The region serves as India’s gateway to Southeast Asia through the Act East Policy. Trade routes and transportation corridors make it economically strategic.
China Border Tensions Arunachal Pradesh remains a disputed territory with China claiming it as South Tibet. McMahon Line disputes create potential flashpoints.
Ethnic Insurgencies Multiple insurgent groups operate across porous borders. Cross-border movement of militants and arms smuggling require military presence.
Resource Security The region contains significant oil reserves and hydroelectric potential. Energy security has national importance and international implications.
Cultural Sensitivity Diverse ethnic communities with distinct identities require careful political management to maintain national unity.
2 a). Institutional factors are playing a dominant role in controlling the agricultural prosperity in India. Justify with evidences.
Ans: Land Tenure System Fragmented land holdings average 1.08 hectares per farmer, making mechanization and economies of scale difficult. Tenant farming without formal contracts discourages long-term investments in soil improvement.
Credit and Financial Institutions Formal credit reaches only 60% of farmers. High interest rates from moneylenders (up to 36% annually) trap farmers in debt cycles. Crop insurance coverage remains inadequate.
Market Structure and Price Support Agricultural Marketing Committees (APMCs) create monopolistic conditions. Minimum Support Price (MSP) covers only 23 crops while farmers grow over 100 crops. Price volatility affects income stability.
Technology and Extension Services Agricultural extension reaches only 40% of farmers. Research-extension-farmer linkage remains weak. Technology adoption is slow due to inadequate demonstration and training programs.
Infrastructure Deficiencies Post-harvest losses account for 15-20% of production. Cold storage capacity covers only 10% of perishables. Rural connectivity affects market access.
Water Management Institutions Groundwater depletion affects 60% of districts. Irrigation efficiency remains low at 38%. Water user associations are poorly managed.
2 b). The Indian Space Policy, 2023 supports the commercial presence in space. In what ways will it benefit the socio-economic development and security of India?
Ans: Economic Growth and Employment Private sector participation will create new industries and high-skilled jobs. Space manufacturing, satellite services, and launch capabilities will boost GDP contribution from current 2.5% to projected 5%.
Technology Transfer and Innovation Commercial partnerships will accelerate technology development and indigenization. Start-up ecosystem will drive innovation in space applications and cost-effective solutions.
Satellite Services and Connectivity Private satellite operators will expand broadband coverage to remote areas. Digital India initiatives will benefit from enhanced connectivity and reduced digital divide.
Agriculture and Rural Development Commercial earth observation satellites will provide precision farming data. Weather forecasting, crop monitoring, and disaster management will improve agricultural productivity.
National Security Enhancement Dual-use technologies will strengthen defense capabilities. Space situational awareness and satellite constellation will enhance border monitoring and strategic surveillance.
Global Market Competitiveness Cost-effective launch services will capture international market share. Commercial space economy will position India as global space hub.
2 c). Discuss the process of formation of conurbations in India and describe their problems.
Ans: Formation Process – Urban Sprawl Metropolitan cities expand beyond administrative boundaries, merging with satellite towns. Radial growth along transportation corridors creates continuous urban fabric.
Industrial Development Industrial clusters around major cities attract migrant population. SEZs and IT parks accelerate peripheral urbanization and land use changes.
Transportation Networks Highway development and suburban railways facilitate commuter movement. Improved connectivity enables residential settlements at greater distances from city centers.
Economic Integration Functional linkages between cities create integrated economic systems. Service sector growth and supply chain networks bind multiple urban centers.
Problems – Infrastructure Strain Overloaded transportation systems cause traffic congestion. Water supply, sewerage, and electricity networks face capacity constraints.
Governance Challenges Multiple administrative units create coordination problems. Overlapping jurisdictions hinder unified planning and resource allocation.
Environmental Degradation Air pollution levels exceed permissible limits. Water bodies face encroachment and industrial pollution. Green cover loss affects urban climate.
Social Inequality Unplanned growth creates slum settlements. Housing affordability crisis affects low-income groups. Service delivery gaps widen urban-rural disparities.
3 a). India has wide-ranging regional disparities in economic development. Explain the patterns, implications and challenges.
Ans: Patterns of Regional Disparities Western and Southern states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka contribute 60% of industrial output. Northern plains dominate agricultural production. Eastern and Central states remain economically backward.
Per Capita Income Variations Goa has highest per capita income at ₹4.6 lakhs while Bihar has lowest at ₹46,000. Interstate inequality has widened from 1.7 times in 1980s to 4.6 times currently.
Industrial Concentration Top 6 states account for 70% of manufacturing output. Mumbai-Pune, Delhi-Gurgaon, Bangalore-Chennai corridors concentrate high-value industries. Resource-rich states like Jharkhand remain industrially backward.
Implications – Migration Pressures Interstate migration creates urban slums in developed states. Brain drain from backward regions perpetuates development gaps. Social tensions arise in destination states.
Fiscal Imbalances Revenue disparities affect public investment capacity. Central transfers through Finance Commission provide limited equalization. Debt-to-GDP ratios vary significantly across states.
Challenges – Infrastructure Gaps Connectivity deficits in remote areas hinder market access. Power shortages and poor logistics affect industrial growth. Digital divide limits knowledge economy participation.
Policy Coordination Center-state relations complicate uniform development. Political considerations influence resource allocation. Competitive federalism creates policy fragmentation.
3 b). Discuss the variations in nature of glaciers in India and the emerging issues due to climate change.
Ans: Himalayan Glacier Types Valley glaciers dominate Karakoram and Greater Himalayas. Cirque glaciers are common in lower altitudes. Hanging glaciers occur on steep mountain faces.
Regional Variations Karakoram glaciers show stable or advancing trends. Western Himalayas experience moderate retreat. Eastern Himalayas face rapid glacial loss due to higher precipitation and temperature rise.
Glacier Characteristics Debris-covered glaciers in Central Himalayas retreat slowly. Clean ice glaciers in Eastern regions show faster melting. Altitude variations range from 3,000m to 8,000m.
Climate Change Impacts – Glacial Retreat Gangotri glacier retreats 22 meters annually. Siachen glacier shows mass balance losses. Temperature rise of 0.6°C per decade accelerates ice melting.
Glacial Lake Formation Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) threaten downstream areas. Over 200 potentially dangerous lakes identified in Himalayas. Kedarnath disaster (2013) highlighted GLOF risks.
Water Security Early snowmelt affects river flow patterns. Reduced dry season flows threaten irrigation and hydropower. Glacial contribution to Ganga may decline 60% by 2050.
Ecosystem Disruption Alpine vegetation zones shift upward. Species migration affects biodiversity. Permafrost melting destabilizes mountain slopes.
3 c). Domestic tourism in India has immense local resource potential. Discuss the reasons and its various dimensions.
Ans: Reasons for Potential – Cultural Diversity 29 states offer distinct cultural experiences. UNESCO World Heritage Sites (40) provide international appeal. Religious tourism attracts millions to pilgrimage centers.
Geographic Diversity Varied landscapes from Himalayas to coastal plains offer multiple tourism products. Climate variations enable year-round tourism. Biodiversity hotspots support eco-tourism.
Growing Middle Class Rising disposable income increases travel spending. Urbanization creates demand for recreational travel. Improved connectivity makes destinations accessible.
Dimensions – Religious Tourism Char Dham Yatra, Kumbh Mela, Golden Temple attract millions. Regional pilgrimages support local economies. Religious festivals drive seasonal tourism.
Adventure Tourism Himalayan trekking, river rafting, mountaineering gain popularity. Coastal activities like water sports attract youth. Wildlife safaris in national parks grow rapidly.
Cultural Tourism Heritage walks, craft villages, folk performances showcase local culture. Culinary tourism promotes regional cuisines. Festivals and fairs attract cultural enthusiasts.
Economic Impact Employment generation in rural areas through homestays. Handicraft sales support artisan communities. Service sector growth in accommodation and transportation.
Wellness Tourism Ayurveda centers, yoga retreats, spa resorts leverage traditional knowledge. Medical tourism combines treatment with travel. Spiritual tourism offers mental wellness.
4 a). Migration is the reflection of regional disparities. What socio-economic and demographic consequences are experienced at the place of origin and destination?
Ans: Place of Origin – Consequences
Demographic Changes Selective out-migration of young adults creates aging population. Male-dominated migration leads to skewed sex ratios. Educated youth exodus causes brain drain from rural areas.
Economic Impacts Remittances contribute 30-35% of household income in migration-prone states. Agricultural productivity declines due to labor shortage. Local entrepreneurship suffers from capital and skill outflow.
Social Consequences Fragmented families create social stress. Women bear additional responsibilities in agriculture and household management. Traditional occupations like handicrafts face skill shortages.
Place of Destination – Consequences
Demographic Pressure Urban population grows at 2.76% annually against rural 1.17%. Slum population increases due to affordable housing shortages. Age structure becomes youthful in destination cities.
Economic Benefits and Challenges Cheap labor supports industrial growth. Informal economy expands through migrant enterprises. Wage depression occurs in unskilled sectors. Tax base increases but service delivery costs rise.
Social Integration Issues Cultural conflicts between migrants and locals. Language barriers affect service access. Ethnic enclaves form in urban peripheries. Competition for jobs and resources creates tensions.
Infrastructure Strain Housing shortage leads to slum expansion. Transportation systems face overcrowding. Healthcare and education facilities become overburdened.
4 b). In spite of various tribal area development programmes in India, tribal areas still lag behind. Discuss critically with examples.
Ans: Programme Implementation Gaps
Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) Allocated 8.6% of budget but fund diversion to non-tribal areas common. Jharkhand and Odisha show poor utilization rates. Top-down planning ignores tribal priorities.
PESA Act Limitations Gram Sabhas lack real decision-making power. Mining projects proceed without tribal consent in Chhattisgarh. Forest rights implementation remains incomplete across scheduled areas.
Educational Challenges Eklavya Model Schools established but teacher shortages persist. Language barriers as education delivered in mainstream languages. Dropout rates remain high at secondary level.
Critical Issues with Examples
Land Alienation Vedanta mining in Niyamgiri hills displaced Dongria Kondh tribe. Industrial projects in Jharkhand acquired tribal lands without proper compensation. Land records often lack tribal ownership documentation.
Healthcare Access Sickle cell anemia affects tribals but specialized treatment unavailable. Malnutrition rates in tribal districts of Madhya Pradesh exceed national average. Traditional medicine knowledge not integrated with modern healthcare.
Economic Marginalization Forest-based livelihoods restricted by conservation laws. Minimum wage violations in tribal employment. Financial inclusion low due to documentation issues and geographic isolation.
Cultural Erosion Displacement from traditional habitats weakens cultural practices. Mainstream education doesn’t incorporate tribal knowledge systems. Urbanization pressures affect tribal languages.
4 c). Water scarcity is an important cause of disputes and conflicts in India. Suggest innovative methods for location-based solutions.
Ans: Coastal Areas – Innovative Solutions
Desalination Technology Solar-powered desalination plants for Chennai and coastal Tamil Nadu. Membrane distillation using waste heat from thermal plants. Floating desalination units for island territories.
Managed Aquifer Recharge Artificial recharge using treated wastewater in coastal aquifers. Injection wells to prevent saltwater intrusion. Dune infiltration systems in Gujarat coastline.
Arid Regions – Water Harvesting
Atmospheric Water Generation Solar-powered systems extracting water from air humidity. Fog nets in Rajasthan hills capture moisture. Dew collection systems for desert communities.
Advanced Rainwater Harvesting Underground storage with geomembrane lining in hard rock areas. Rooftop harvesting with first flush diverters. Community-scale systems with digital monitoring.
Urban Areas – Smart Solutions
Wastewater Recycling Decentralized treatment plants for residential complexes. Constructed wetlands for natural treatment. Purple pipe networks for recycled water distribution.
Smart Water Management IoT sensors for leak detection in distribution networks. AI-based demand forecasting and supply optimization. Blockchain for water trading between surplus and deficit areas.
River Basins – Integrated Approach
Inter-basin Transfers Micro-tunneling technology for efficient transfers. Pumped storage systems combining water storage and energy generation. Modular pipeline systems for flexible routing.
Watershed Management Payment for ecosystem services to upstream communities. Bioengineering techniques for soil conservation. Community-based monitoring using mobile technology.
5 a). How are geographic factors influencing the distribution of high, annual rainfall in certain parts of India?
The distribution of high annual rainfall in India is strongly influenced by various geographic factors such as relief, location, and wind patterns. The Southwest Monsoon winds, originating from the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, bring the bulk of rainfall. Regions like the Western Ghats and Meghalaya Hills receive extremely heavy rainfall due to orographic lifting, where moist winds are forced to rise over mountain barriers, cooling and condensing into rain. For instance, Mawsynram and Cherrapunji in Meghalaya record the world’s highest rainfall because the Khasi Hills obstruct moisture-laden winds from the Bay of Bengal. Similarly, the windward side of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala and Karnataka, gets abundant rain, while the leeward side (rain shadow areas) like the Deccan Plateau remains relatively dry. Coastal regions also receive heavy rainfall due to the direct influence of monsoon winds. Thus, relief features, wind direction, and proximity to water bodies are key determinants of rainfall distribution in India.
5 b). Indian population belongs to large number of races. Discuss the spatial distribution of major races.
Ans: India’s population is highly diverse, consisting of a mixture of racial groups due to centuries of migration and settlement. The Negrito race, considered the earliest, survives in the Andaman Islands. The Proto-Australoid race is mainly found in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and central India, particularly among tribal groups. The Mongoloid race dominates the Northeastern states like Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Sikkim, as well as Himalayan regions such as Ladakh. The Mediterranean race is spread across the Indo-Gangetic plains, western India, and peninsular regions. The Nordic or Indo-Aryan race is concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Kashmir, influencing much of North India’s social structure. In addition, Dravidian elements are strong in Southern India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. This spatial distribution of races reflects India’s ethnic complexity, which has shaped its cultural, linguistic, and social diversity.
5 c). Examine the transitional role of technology on Indian agriculture sector.
Ans: The role of technology has been transformational in Indian agriculture. Before independence, agriculture was largely subsistence-based and dependent on the monsoon. The Green Revolution of the 1960s introduced HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, irrigation facilities, and mechanization, which significantly raised foodgrain production, especially in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh. The White Revolution and Blue Revolution later boosted milk and fish production through modern techniques. Today, precision farming, drip irrigation, genetically modified crops, biotechnology, and digital tools are reshaping agriculture by increasing productivity while conserving resources. Mobile apps, GIS mapping, and weather forecasting help farmers make informed decisions. However, these benefits remain uneven, as small farmers often lack access to costly technologies. Thus, technology has shifted Indian agriculture from a traditional, low-yield system to a scientific and commercial enterprise, though challenges of inclusivity and sustainability still persist.
5 d). Describe the area-specific strategies for the development of drought-prone areas in India.
Ans: India has vast drought-prone regions, mainly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh, requiring area-specific strategies. One important approach is watershed management, which involves soil conservation, contour bunding, and afforestation to enhance water retention. Rainwater harvesting and the construction of check dams, percolation tanks, and farm ponds help recharge groundwater. In agriculture, drought-resistant crop varieties, crop diversification, and micro-irrigation systems improve water-use efficiency. Promoting agro-forestry and dryland farming techniques reduces dependence on rainfall. Employment-oriented schemes like MGNREGA assist rural communities in coping with drought by providing alternative livelihoods. In severely affected regions, development of drought-proof industries such as handicrafts and small-scale agro-based industries helps reduce pressure on agriculture. These measures, tailored to local conditions, ensure sustainable resource use and livelihood security, thereby reducing the vulnerability of populations in drought-prone areas.
5 e). Examine the relationship between seaports and regional development in India.
Ans: Seaports play a crucial role in India’s regional development as they act as gateways for trade, commerce, and connectivity. India, with its long coastline, has 13 major ports and over 200 minor ports, which handle about 95% of India’s trade by volume. Regions around Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, and Visakhapatnam have emerged as industrial and commercial hubs due to their proximity to ports, facilitating export-import activities. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and coastal industrial corridors have flourished near ports, boosting employment and infrastructure. Ports also stimulate urbanization, transport networks, and service sectors like tourism and fisheries. For example, Kandla and Mundra in Gujarat have transformed the regional economy by connecting hinterlands with global markets. However, regional disparities exist, as the eastern coast remains less developed compared to the western coast. Overall, ports act as engines of growth, linking India’s regions to the global economy and accelerating balanced regional development.
6 a). Industrial waste is diversified. Discuss the potentials and challenges associated with it.
Ans: Industrial waste in India is highly diversified, including solid, liquid, gaseous, and hazardous by-products from manufacturing, mining, textiles, chemicals, and thermal power industries. The potential lies in its reuse and recycling for economic and environmental benefits. Fly ash from thermal power plants can be used in cement and brick making, while metal scraps and plastic waste can be reprocessed for manufacturing. Similarly, biodegradable waste can be converted into biogas and organic fertilizers, promoting a circular economy. However, there are serious challenges. Hazardous wastes like heavy metals, e-waste, and chemical effluents pose risks of soil contamination, groundwater pollution, and health hazards. Poor enforcement of waste management rules, lack of scientific disposal facilities, and informal recycling practices worsen the problem. Therefore, while industrial waste offers opportunities for resource recovery, addressing environmental hazards, technological gaps, and regulatory weaknesses remains critical for sustainable management.
6 b). How is cultural background of States of India reflected in the attributes of sex and age structure?
Ans: The cultural background of Indian states significantly influences their sex ratio and age structure. In Kerala, with a tradition of matrilineal practices, women’s literacy, and healthcare access, the sex ratio is highly favorable to females (above 1080 females per 1000 males). In contrast, Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan, influenced by patriarchal norms and son preference, record lower sex ratios. Cultural attitudes toward marriage and family planning also shape the age structure. States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, with higher fertility rates due to traditional beliefs, have a younger population, while Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with modern outlooks and family planning acceptance, show an aging demographic. Early marriage customs in parts of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh influence a bulge in the youth category, while better healthcare and awareness in southern states extend life expectancy. Thus, cultural traditions, social values, and gender norms directly reflect in the sex and age profile of India’s states.
6 c). Discuss the targets of focused interventions of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain, 2024 in rural and urban areas.
Ans: The Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain, 2024 aims at ensuring water conservation and rainwater harvesting in both rural and urban areas. Its major targets include promoting rainwater harvesting structures like check dams, percolation tanks, rooftop harvesting, and farm ponds. In rural areas, the focus is on rejuvenation of traditional water bodies, watershed development, afforestation, and repair of canals to improve irrigation. Villages are encouraged to adopt water budgeting and promote micro-irrigation techniques to ensure efficient use of water in agriculture. In urban areas, the mission targets mandatory rooftop rainwater harvesting, revival of urban lakes, groundwater recharge structures, and integration of storm-water drains with storage systems. The campaign also emphasizes community participation, awareness building, and convergence with MGNREGA, Jal Jeevan Mission, and AMRUT schemes. Overall, its goal is to make water conservation a people’s movement, ensuring water security and resilience against drought and climate change.
7 a). India is playing a very significant role in world affairs. Examine the stands taken by India in important global and regional summits.
Ans: India has emerged as a key player in global and regional affairs, reflecting its role as the world’s largest democracy and a fast-growing economy. At the G20 Summit (2023, New Delhi), India promoted the theme “One Earth, One Family, One Future”, emphasizing climate action, digital inclusion, and global economic recovery. In COP summits, India advocates climate justice, committing to Net Zero by 2070 while ensuring the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. At the BRICS summits, India pushes for reforms in global institutions, promoting cooperation in finance, trade, and technology. Within regional forums like BIMSTEC and SCO, India stresses connectivity, counter-terrorism, and sustainable development. As a member of the Quad, India balances regional stability in the Indo-Pacific. These stands reflect India’s strategy of balancing national interests with global responsibilities, strengthening its image as a responsible stakeholder in world affairs.
7 b). The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act devolved functions, finances and functionaries for planning of rural areas in India. Discuss the major achievements with examples.
Ans: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) established a three-tier Panchayati Raj system, ensuring decentralized planning and governance in rural areas. One achievement is the empowerment of local bodies through 29 subjects listed in the 11th Schedule, enabling planning for agriculture, health, sanitation, and education. Financial devolution through State Finance Commissions and central schemes like MGNREGA have strengthened rural development. For example, Panchayats in Kerala are known for People’s Plan Campaign, achieving success in local health and literacy programs. In Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, Panchayats have played a role in watershed management and drinking water projects. Reservation of 33% (now 50% in many states) seats for women has enhanced gender participation in grassroots democracy. Digital initiatives like e-Gram Swaraj have improved transparency. Overall, the amendment has empowered rural communities, though challenges remain in terms of financial autonomy and capacity building.
7 c). How do small and fragmented landholdings affect the agro-ecological system in rural India? What are the resilient steps needed to overcome this issue?
Ans: In India, over 85% of farmers are small and marginal, holding less than 2 hectares of land. Small and fragmented landholdings negatively affect the agro-ecological system by reducing economies of scale, discouraging mechanization, and leading to overexploitation of land. Such holdings often result in monocropping, soil degradation, and inefficient water use, undermining sustainability. Fragmentation also limits adoption of modern technologies, making agriculture low-productive and vulnerable to climate change. To overcome this, resilient steps are needed: land consolidation programs, as practiced in Punjab and Haryana, reduce fragmentation. Cooperative and group farming models enhance scale efficiency. Promotion of contract farming, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and digital land records can empower small farmers. Adoption of sustainable practices like agroforestry, organic farming, and micro-irrigation ensures ecological balance. Thus, tackling fragmentation through collective approaches and policy support is essential for strengthening India’s agro-ecological resilience.
8 a). How can morphology of Indian towns be described historically? Discuss the major features of the first planned city in India after independence.
Ans: The morphology of Indian towns reflects a long history of political, cultural, and economic influences. Ancient towns like Varanasi, Pataliputra, and Madurai evolved around religious centers, trade routes, and rivers. Medieval towns such as Delhi, Agra, and Hyderabad were built with forts, palaces, bazaars, and mosques, reflecting Islamic and Rajput architecture. Colonial towns like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata were developed as port and administrative cities, with European-style layouts and cantonments. After independence, the first planned city was Chandigarh, designed by Le Corbusier. Its major features include a grid-iron pattern, separation of residential, commercial, and administrative zones, wide tree-lined roads, and abundant open spaces. The Capitol Complex with the High Court, Assembly, and Secretariat symbolizes modernist architecture. Chandigarh represents a shift from organic growth to scientific urban planning, balancing aesthetic design with functionality in post-independence India.
8 b). Health is the outcome of interaction between physical setting, cultural traits and ecological connection. Explain.
Ans: Health in India is shaped by a dynamic interaction of physical environment, cultural traits, and ecological linkages. The physical setting, including climate, water, air quality, and topography, directly affects health outcomes. For example, malaria is common in humid areas, while respiratory diseases prevail in industrial belts with air pollution. Cultural traits such as dietary habits, sanitation practices, marriage customs, and traditional medicine strongly influence health. For instance, vegetarian diets in some communities contribute to lower cardiovascular risks, while early marriages in parts of India affect maternal health. The ecological connection highlights how human activities interact with nature; deforestation, urbanization, industrialization, and climate change increase vulnerability to new diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic reinforced the importance of ecological balance in public health. Thus, health is not just a medical issue but a holistic outcome of environmental conditions, socio-cultural practices, and ecological sustainability.
8 c). What are the major regional rapid transit systems developed in India? How are urban problems being addressed by them?
Ans: Regional Rapid Transit Systems (RRTS) in India are being developed to improve inter-city connectivity and reduce urban congestion. The first major project is the Delhi–Meerut RRTS (82 km) under construction, which will reduce travel time to less than an hour. Other corridors like Delhi–Alwar and Delhi–Panipat are also planned. Apart from RRTS, metro rail systems in cities such as Delhi, Bengaluru, Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Kolkata have become lifelines for urban commuters. These systems address urban problems by reducing traffic congestion, curbing vehicular pollution, saving travel time, and promoting sustainable mobility. They also ease pressure on road infrastructure and improve accessibility to jobs, education, and healthcare. By encouraging public transport use, they help tackle the rising challenges of urbanization, population growth, and environmental degradation. Thus, RRTS and metro systems are crucial for balanced urban development and improving the quality of life in Indian cities.