Vedic Period and Culture

The decline of the Harappan cities around 1500 B.C. was followed by the arrival of the Indo-Aryans into north-western India. They initially settled in Punjab and later moved into the Indo-Gangetic plains. Their culture, preserved in the Vedic texts, marks the beginning of a new era in Indian history. This period is divided into two phases: the Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Age (1500–1000 B.C.) and the Later Vedic Age (1000–600 B.C.). The Vedic age laid the foundation for India’s religion, polity, society, and economy.

Original Home of the Aryans

• The original home of Aryans is debated: Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia, and Southern Russia.

• The theory of Southern Russia is the most accepted by historians.

• They migrated into India around 1500 B.C. and were known as Indo-Aryans.

• Their language was Sanskrit, belonging to the Indo-European family.

Vedic Literature

• The word Veda means knowledge.

• Four Vedas: Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva.

• Rig Veda (oldest, 1028 hymns) – praises to various gods.

• Yajur Veda – details of rituals and sacrifices.

• Sama Veda – set to tune, origins of Indian music.

• Atharva Veda – rituals, charms, and magical spells.

• Other works: Brahmanas (ritual texts), Upanishads (philosophy), Aranyakas (forest treatises), Epics – Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Rig Vedic Age (1500–1000 B.C.)

• Aryans lived mainly in the Punjab and Sapta Sindhu region.

• Political life:

  • Basic unit was family (kula); villages led by gramani.

  • Larger units were visu (headed by vishayapati) and jana (tribe).

  • King called rajan; assisted by purohita (priest) and senani (army chief).

  • Popular assemblies included Sabha (council of elders) and Samiti (general assembly).

• Social life:

  • Patriarchal society; family headed by grahapati.

  • Monogamy was common, though polygamy existed among nobles.

  • Women enjoyed high status – educated, poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, Lopamudra.

  • No child marriage or sati.

  • Food included barley, wheat, milk, ghee, vegetables. Cow considered sacred.

  • Games: chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music, and dance.

• Economic life:

  • Pastoral economy; cattle were main wealth.

  • Gradual shift to agriculture.

  • Use of iron helped expand cultivation.

  • Professions: carpentry, metalwork, spinning, pottery, goldsmithing.

  • Trade was by barter; later use of gold coin nishka.

• Religion:

  • Worship of nature gods: Indra (thunder, most important), Agni (fire), Varuna (cosmic order), Vayu (wind).

  • Female deities: Aditi, Ushas.

  • No temples or idol worship; rituals with offerings of milk, ghee, and grains.

Later Vedic Age (1000–600 B.C.)

• Aryans expanded to the eastern Gangetic plains.

• Emergence of large kingdoms such as Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Kasi, Videha, Magadha, Anga, Vanga.

• Famous rulers: Janaka of Videha, Ajatasatru of Kasi.

• India divided into Aryavarta (north), Madhyadesa (central), Dakshinapatha (south).

• Political life:

  • Larger kingdoms called janapadas or rashtras.

  • Kings performed rituals like Rajasuya (consecration), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice), Vajpeya (chariot race) to strengthen power.

  • New officials: treasurer, tax collector, messengers.

  • Sabha and Samiti declined in importance.

• Economic life:

  • Extensive use of iron tools for farming.

  • Main crops: barley, rice, wheat.

  • Rise of specialized crafts: metalwork, leatherwork, pottery, carpentry.

  • Growth of trade, both internal and foreign (with Babylon).

  • Emergence of merchant class (vaniya); trade organized into guilds (ganas).

  • Use of gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala.

• Social life:

  • Varna system became rigid – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras.

  • Brahmins gained high status, but sometimes Kshatriyas claimed superiority.

  • Women’s position declined – loss of rights to attend assemblies, practice of child marriage, and subordination to men.

  • Royal women retained some privileges.

• Religion:

  • New gods: Prajapati (creator), Vishnu (protector), Rudra (destroyer) became prominent.

  • Importance of sacrifices increased; priesthood became hereditary.

  • Rituals grew complex, leading to reaction against priestly dominance.

  • Rise of Upanishadic philosophy, emphasizing true knowledge (jnana) over rituals.

  • This paved the way for Buddhism and Jainism.

Key Takeaway

• The Vedic period marks a transformation from a pastoral society to an agrarian and urban one.

• It established religious traditions, political institutions, social order, and economic systems that shaped Indian civilization.

• The Early Vedic Age reflected a simple, open society, while the Later Vedic Age saw growing kingdoms, social stratification, and priestly dominance.

• Intellectual and religious developments during this period laid the foundation for new religions like Buddhism and Jainism.